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RESEARCH ARTICLE
SA JOURNAL OF DIABETES & VASCULAR DISEASE
52
VOLUME 14 NUMBER 2 • DECEMBER 2017
were more common among participants with hypertension (17.7 vs
10.0%;
p
= 0.010 and 25.8 vs 18.0%; p = 0.008, respectively) than
in normotensives. With regard to WC, 73.4% of women had a WC
> 88 cm, most (79.4%) of whom were hypertensive, opposed to
67.7% who were non-hypertensive (
p
= 0.004). This difference was
not statistically significant among the men. Overall, participants
with hypertension were more likely to be overweight (33.2 vs
30.5%) and obese (42.5 vs 16.8%) (
p
< 0.001), but reported lower
smoking rates (15.0 vs 24.1%;
p
= 0.002).
Hypertension and smoking were more prevalent in participants
with diabetes (83.3 vs 71.9%;
p
= 0.010 and 19.7 vs 17.9%;
p
=
0.019, respectively). The distribution of other risk factors, including
hypercholesterolaemia, increased WC, overweight and obesity,
and excessive alcohol consumption, was not significantly different
between the participants with and without diabetes. Details of the
risk factors according to presence or absence of diabetes are shown
in Table 4.
The overall prevalence of the MS, impaired fasting glucose levels
(IFG) and diabetes mellitus was 39.4, 9.3 and 15.7%, respectively.
Detailed prevalences of the MS, IFG and diabetes according to
urban or rural and hypertensive status, gender and country are
presented in Fig. 1. The highest prevalence of the MS was reported
Table 1.
General characteristics and overall profile of study population
Cameroon (
n
= 154) 17.9%
Nigeria (
n
= 211) 25.9%
DRC (
n
= 239) 28.1%
Madagascar (
n
= 240) 28.1%
Total (
n
= 844)
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
(
n
= 360)
(
n
= 484)
Total
Variables
(
n
= 54)
(
n
= 100)
p
-value (
n
= 87)
(
n
= 124)
p
-value (
n
= 116)
(
n
= 123)
p
-value (
n
= 103)
(
n
= 103)
p
-value (42.6%)
(57.4%)
(
n
= 844)
p
-value
Age (years)
51.5 ± 9.7 56.4 ± 11.2 0.009 50.3 ± 13.2 48.8 ± 11.3 0.369 56.7 ± 11.2 55.7 ± 12.9 0.532 51.4 ± 10.0 49.5 ± 9.9 0.147 52.8 ± 11.5 52.3 ± 11.8 52.6 ± 11.7 0.512
BMI (kg/m
2
)
29.7 ± 3.8 31.1 ± 6.7 0.184 28.6 ± 6.1 31.2 ± 6.4 0.003 27.7 ± 6.8 30.4 ± 6.2 0.002 25.1 ± 4.0 25.0 ± 3.9 0.930 27.5 ± 5.8 29.3 ± 6.4 28.5 ± 6.1 0.000
BMI category,
n
(%)
Normal
06 (11.1)
22 (22.0)
29 (33.4)
21 (16.8)
39 (33.6)
25 (20.4)
53 (51.4)
69 (50.4)
127 (35.3)
137 (28.3)
264 (31.3)
Overweight
22 (40.7)
23 (23.0)
0.005 27 (31.0)
32 (25.8)
0.007 38 (32.8)
37 (30.1)
0.005 40 (38.8)
54 (39.4)
0.983 127 (35.3) 146 (30.2) 273 (32.3) 0.000
Obese
26 (48.2)
43 (43.0)
28 (32.2)
59 (47.7)
38 (32.8)
50 (40.6)
10 (9.7)
14 (10.2)
102 (28.3) 166 (34.3) 268 (31.8)
Morbidly obese 00 (0.0)
12 (12.0)
03 (3.4)
12 (9.7)
01 (0.8)
11 (8.9)
00 (0.0)
00 (0.0)
04(1.1)
35 (7.2)
39 (4.6)
WC (cm)
101.2 ± 12.8 102.7 ± 16.1 0.559 91.2 ± 11.5 97.4 ± 15.4 0.001 97.7 ± 17.9 99.9 ± 14.5 0.279 91.2 ± 11.2 88.4 ± 10.5 0.049 94.8 ± 14.5 96.6 ± 15.1 95.8 ± 14.8 0.071
HC (cm)
104.5 ± 12.3 109.4 ± 19.8 0.101 96.8 ± 12.6 106.2 ± 18.2 0.000 101.1 ± 10.0 110.6 ± 14.6 0.000 97.8 ± 7.5 99.4 ± 9.1 0.155 99.6 ± 10.8 106.1 ± 16.2 103.2 ± 14.5 0.000
SBP (mmHg)
168.5 ± 17.4 167.9 ± 17.8 0.855 138.8 ± 24.8 140.4 ± 25.7 0.656 163.6 ± 15.8 166.4 ± 21.2 0.260 132.3 ± 22.7 128.7 ± 23.1 0.231 149.5 ± 25.5 149.5 ± 27.9 149.3 ± 26.9 0.981
DBP (mmHg)
102.9 ± 11.4 100.4 ± 12.2 0.221 84.8 ± 11.8 86.2 ± 14.4 0.462 98.2 ± 11.5 96.4 ± 11.3 0.248 84.8 ± 13.9 82.2 ± 15.2 0.183 91.9 ± 14.4 90.6 ± 15.3 91.1 ± 14.9 0.239
History of HTN,
n
(%)
Yes
01 (1.9)
05 (5.1)
0.423 50 (57.5)
82 (66.1)
0.248 81 (69.8)
93 (75.6)
0.383 38 (36.9)
55 (40.1)
0.688 170 (47.2)
235 (48.8) 405 (48.1) 0.729
No
53 (98.1)
93 (94.9)
37 (42.5)
42 (33.9)
35 (30.2)
30 (24.4)
65 (63.1)
82 (59.9)
190 (52.8) 247 (51.2) 437 (51.9)
History of DM,
n
(%)
Yes
06 (11.1)
09 (9.1)
0.778 10 (11.9)
12 (9.7)
0.820
11 (9.6)
14 (11.5)
0.677 06 (5.9)
02 (1.5)
0.077 33(9.3)
37(7.8)
70 (8.4)
0.452
No
48 (88.9)
90 (90.9)
74 (88.1)
104 (90.3)
104 (90.4)
108 (88.5)
97 (94.1)
135 (98.5)
323(90.7)
437(92.2) 760 (91.6)
FBS (mmol/l)
6.2 ± 2.8 6.6 ±7.6 0.685 6.2 ±2.9 5.8 ± 4.1 0.979 5.4 ± 1.8 5.1 ± 1.6
0.084 5.9 ± 2.0 5.5 ± 1.6 0.122 5.8 ± 2.3 5.7 ± 4.2 5.8 ± 3.5 0.798
Lipid profile
TG (mmol/l)
2.4 ± 10.0 0.9 ± 0.5 0.144 6.8 ± 5.8 5.8 ± 4.1 0.173 1.1 ± 0.6 1.0 ± 0.4 0.266 2.1 ± 1.4 1.4 ± 0.8 0.000 2.9 ± 5.3 2.2 ± 2.8 2.5 ± 4.1 0.019
HDL-C
1.2 ± 0.5
1.3 ± 0.7
0.560 2.6 ± 1.1
2.9 ± 1.2 0.075
1.2 ± 0.3
1.4 ± 0.5 0.000 1.3 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.3
0.052
1.6 ± 0.9
1.8 ± 0.9
1.7 ± 0.9
0.004
(mmol/l)
LDL-C
2.8 ± 0.8 2.5 ± 0.8 0.027 6.1 ± 3.3 6.5 ± 3.4 0.412 2.8 ± 1.2
2.9 ± 1.2 0.349 2.5 ± 0.8 2.7 ± 0.9 0.085 3.4 ± 2.3 3.6 ± 2.4
3.5 ± 2.4
0.436
(mmol/l)
TC (mmol/l)
4.4 ± 0.9 4.2 ± 0.9 0.317 8.8 ± 4.5 9.2 ± 4.8 0.549 4.5 ± 0.9 4.7 ± 1.1 0.154
4.8 ± 0.9 4.9 ± 1.1 0.360
5.5 ± 2.8 5.7 ± 3.0 5.6 ± 3.0 0.471
Creatinine
108.6 ± 35.4 99.2 ± 40.4 0.153 56.2 ± 21.2 54.5 ± 28.4 0.658 107.2 ± 43.1
84.9 ± 22.1 0.000 88.8 ± 17.2 66.4 ± 11.4 0.000 90.8 ± 37.3 75.7 ± 31.1 82.1 ± 34.6 0.000
(μmol/l)
Uric acid (μmol/l)384.6 ± 84.2 298.6 ± 0.000 300.7 ± 264.5 ± 0.350
405.3 ± 354.7 ± 0.000 340.6 ± 90.3 249.9 ± 67.9 0.000 295.0 ± 233.2 ± 259.3 ±
0.000
119.9
275.4
242.1
109.5
100.1
178.5
154.1
168.0
Alcohol intake,
n
(%)
Low–moderate 22 (46.8)
49 (75.3)
0.003
–
–
–
52 (70.3)
45 (91.8)
0.006
38 (76.0)
20 (100.0) 0.014 114 (65.9)
115 (85.1)
229 (74.4) 0.000
Excessive
25 (53.2)
16 (24.7)
22 (29.7)
04 (8.2)
12 (34.0)
00 (0.0)
59 (34.1)
20 (14.9)
79 (25.6)
Tobacco use,
n
(%)
Current
05 (9.3)
05 (5.1)
0.004
04 (4.6)
00 (0.0)
0.000
10 (8.7)
01 (0.8)
0.000
26 (25.2)
22 (16.1)
0.007
45 (12.5)
28 (5.7)
73 (8.7)
0.000
Former
08 (14.8)
02 (2.0)
17 (19.7)
00 (0.0)
14 (12.2)
01 (0.8)
19 (18.4)
12 (8.7)
58 (16.1)
15 (3.1)
73 (8.7)
Never
41 (75.9)
92 (92.9)
65 (75.7) 122 (100.0)
91 (79.1)
121 (98.4)
58 (56.3)
103 (75.2)
255 (71.4)
438 (91.2)
693 (82.6)
Employment,
n
(%)
Unemployed
0 (0.0)
14 (14.3)
01 (1.1)
06 (4.5)
12 (10.4)
16 (13.0)
02 (1.9)
06 (4.4)
15(4.1)
42(8.6)
57 (6.8)
Full time
24 (44.4)
22 (22.4)
22 (24.4)
44 (35.3)
60 (51.7)
18 (14.6)
52 (50.5)
71 (51.8)
158(43.5)
155(31.8)
313 (37.2) 0.000
Part time
05 (9.3)
02 (2.0)
0.000
03 (3.3)
01 (0.8)
0.010
01 (0.8)
00 (0.0)
0.000
07 (6.8)
06 (4.4)
0.001
16(4.4)
09(1.9)
25 (2.9)
Self-employed 13 (24.1)
09 (9.3)
46 (53.4)
50 (40.1)
24 (20.7)
18 (14.6)
29 (28.2)
24 (17.5)
112 (31.4)
101(21.4)
213 (25.3)
Housewife
00 (0.0)
44 (44.9)
00 (0.0)
09 (7.2)
00 (0.0)
63 (51.2)
00 (0.0)
19 (13.8)
01 (0.3)
135(27.8)
136 (16.2)
Retired
12 (22.2)
07 (7.1)
15 (17.8)
15 (12.1)
19 (16.4)
08 (6.5)
13 (12.6)
11 (8.0)
58 (16.3)
40(8.5)
98 (11.6)
Education,
n
(%)
None
01 (1.9)
15 (15.3)
01 (2.2)
11 (8.9)
02 (1.7)
18 (14.6)
00 (0.0)
01 (0.7)
04 (1.2)
45 (9.4)
49 (5.8)
Primary school 12 (22.2) 38 (38.7) 0.000 54 (61.1) 70 (56.9) 0.113
05 (4.3)
31 (25.2)
0.000 11 (10.7)
12 (8.8)
0.024 82 (22.8)
151 (31.4)
233 (27.7)
0.000
High school
18 (33.3)
25 (25.5)
09 (10.0)
14 (11.4)
40 (34.5)
42 (34.1)
19 (18.4)
51 (37.2)
86 (23.8)
132 (27.4)
218 (25.9)
Diploma
08 (14.8)
15 (15.3)
00 (0.0)
00 (0.0)
26 (22.4)
18 (14.6)
25 (24.3)
27 (19.7)
59 (16.4)
60 (12.5)
119 (14.1)
Degree
15 (27.8)
05 (5.2)
23 (26.7)
28 (22.8)
43 (37.1)
14 (11.4)
48 (46.6)
46 (33.6)
129 (35.8)
93 (19.3)
222 (26.5)
Residence,
n
(%)
Urban
47 (87.0)
81 (82.6)
0.643 45 (51.7)
70 (56.9)
0.484 113 (97.4)
120 (97.5)
0.942 71 (68.9)
100 (72.9) 0.565 276 (76.6) 371 (77.1) 647 (76.9) 0.988
Semi-urban 07 (13.0)
17 (17.4)
42 (48.3)
53 (43.1)
03 (2.6)
03 (2.5)
32 (31.1)
37 (27.1)
84 (23.4)
110 (22.9) 194 (23.1)
BMI = body mass index; WC = waist circumference; HC = hip circumference; SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; DM = diabetes mellitus; HTN = hyper-
tension; FBS = fasting blood sugar; TG = triglycerides; HDL-C = high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C = low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TC = total cholesterol; DRC =
Democratic Republic of Congo;
p
-values are for comparison between gender among participating countries.